[ Maus I ] [ On the Matter of Owls ] [ What Will Be ] [ Military Technology Essay ]

The following Essay assignment was completed for the Computers in Society paper for the Bachelor of Information Technology.

Introduction

Of all the areas of our society the military has been in the forefront of advancement of technology. This has been primarily due to the need to outsmart and out-gun the enemy of the time. To hold the critical advantage on the battlefield one must hold the technological advantage, one can not go without the other. This battlefield is on the ground, in the air, at sea and now also in space.

The industrial revolution brought about competition like there had never been in human development. This was the most prevalent in the face of World War Two. Due to this massive conflict man came to create and advance technology farther than it had ever been pushed before. All in the effort to defeat their enemies of the time, whoever they happened to be.

Or-though technological advantage has not always paved the way to ultimate victory on the battlefield it has definitely allowed for success in some form. If this advantage did not exist the enemy’s victory would surely have been much more rapidly forth coming.  In the last 50 years the face of warfare has changed little with regards to the face of technology. These same sorts of concepts are still being used, and thus similar tactics are still being employed. The interesting thing is that the technology has changed vastly on the lower levels, where it effects the individual soldier, where it makes them more effective and gives them greater chance of survival.

Tanks are getting faster and their armour tougher. The soldier on the ground has the ability to draw down laser-guided bombs from an advanced fighter-bomber. Ammunition is becoming deadlier every day with different methods of doing damage depending on the target. Body armour gets stronger and lighter and small arms, though based on the same technology of over 50 years ago now have accessories to make them more effective, night sights, laser aiming models and advanced ammunition just to name a few. Even so this area along, of small arms is entering into a new arena of Advanced combat weapons which is the next stage of the development and is to be the center of personal armaments in the next century.

I propose to look at some of the technology involved in modern warfare and to take different areas of that battlefield to demonstrate the various applications of this technology. This will include aside from weaponry also training devices, communications, and visionary aids amongst others. We will see examples of how these different elements can be all brought together such as in the 21st Century Land Warrior concept to make the modern solider all the more tactically formidable while also more capable of surviving both the environment and the combat.

All the same the modern soldier on the ground still has to wade through the same mud and endure the same cold and watch for the enemy as the soldier of old once did. The soldier of today simply has improved senses, more accurate and effective weapons and a more extensive array of communications to do the same job. Now let us take a look at what this technology is and how it effects the battlefield of today and the possibilities of tomorrow.

Irish soldier armed with Steyr Assault Rifle in compact bullpup layout and featuring intergral x1.5 magnification scope

Small Arms

For the man of the Infantry, the ground pounder, the grunt there is little more important than his rifle. The rifle itself is critical to his role whether it be on foot conventionally, as part of a special force, as a mechanised infantryman operating from an Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) or any other means.  It is not only the rifle that he uses but also the accessories which accompany that weapon which enhance it and improve it which have also become very important. Devices such as Laser Aiming Modules (LAM) and laser sights, night sights for night fighting, weapon additions such as under-barrel grenade launchers are just some examples.

Some small arms of recent times have been developed for the Advanced Combat Rifle (ACR) program that is geared to help field a weapon of the 2000’s for the infantryman. The Colt ACR fires a duplex round which contains a second projectile intended to increase the chances of a hit out to around 300 metres. This kind of development demonstrates that, although the rifle still does essentially the same thing it has always done, it has become more effective towards the kind of war that is being waged, more accurate, and lighter.

Steyr ACR

The Steyr ACR from Austria fires Synthetic Cased Flechettes (SCF) which are small darts capable of penetrating a modern kevlar helmet or body armour with ease. The rifle uses a transparent plastic magazine so the soldier can see how many rounds are left at a glance.  The body of the weapon is made from polycarbonate material, which makes it both lighter and stronger than conventional materials.

US soldier in trials with the Flechette firing Steyr ACR

G11

The German made G11 uses case-less ammunition which has its projectile encased in a block of propellant which is vaporised at the time of firing. This has the tactical advantage of no brass casings being ejected, no need for the mechanics of ejection and thus less concern for foreign materials entering the weapon, which could cause malfunctions. The lack of a casing also means that the round is inherently smaller and more ammunition can be stored in the magazine, in this case 45 or 50 rather than the typical thirty. Magazines are also pre-fabricated, and discarded when used, which also means less cause for environmental malfunction. The weapon itself has an integral scope for improved accuracy and is ergonomically designed making for easy use and natural shooting ability. Due to complex manufacture and more so, the unconventional ammunition this weapon was abandoned.

The G11 shown in the hands of a German soldier equipped with non-standard high magnification scope

Bushman

A little known machine-pistol from the United Kingdom called the Bushman uses electronics to set the rate of fire of the weapon. Rate of Fire (ROF) can be set anywhere between 1 and 1400 rounds per minute. This can be set easily by the user depending on what is required.

21st Century Land Warrior

The 21st Century Land Warrior (21CLW) is the name given to the concept of new future military development for the man on the ground. This has been a study and progressive objective for the past decade, been the focus of many western military forces.  The idea also branches out into all other areas of the battlefield to standardise, digitise and maximise the effectiveness of a force. It serves to conquer one of the biggest problems of the modern military, that of non-universal equipment. Equipment is produced by all manner of company and specialists. As such these individual items are often not compatible even if it is the intention. This makes for difficult use and coordination on the battlefield. The 21st Century Land Warrior embraces the best technology available today and presents it in a user-friendly fashion which makes the soldier preform better and easier than before. Essential tools that currently are further afield or otherwise more difficult to acquire will be close at hand. Several subsystems make up the overall 21CLW dealing with the weapons system, body armour and communications. The backpack contains a computer system, which powers and controls electronic components including digital communications and Global Positioning System (GPS) which provides navigation down to the square metre almost anywhere on the planet surface. At present the standard infantryman of a given rifle unit must be able to use several weapons at the lowest level such as a rifle, grenade launcher and light machinegun. Dedicated optics for night fighting and surveillance are often specialist instruments that are difficult to access. The weapon developed for the new system is called the Objective Individual Combat Weapon (OICW) and encompasses all these roles, thus the soldier only learn a single weapon. Thermal and Infrared sights are compact enough to be a standard feature of the weapon system rather than, as they are now, a separate entity. All elements will exceed performances of current weapons. Sight systems enable a soldier to operate in any weather or any conditions day or night. Laser target designation can be initiated by the rifleman, calling in artillery fire or Laser Guided Bombs (LGB) from aircraft onto a target. Currently a specialised device is required for this; the OICW enables this task with the standard issue weapons system.  The Weapon Subsystem also includes a laser rangefinder/digital compass (LRF/DC) which enables optimum use of ballistic and explosive ordnance and the best possible information for calling in fire support. The digital Compass enables effective navigation and coordination when linked to the Global Positioning System (GPS). It also enables effective tracking of targets.

The Thermal Weapons Sight (TWS) enables the soldier to see ‘through’ hard cover by way of sensing heat rather than physical structure. Also the video system and sight allow for the rifle to be put around a corner to ‘see’ what is there with minimal exposure to the firer. This is all in aid of battlefield awareness and firing the weapon while not at the shoulder would be questionable.

The importance of target identification can not be underrated and on-board Identify Friend or Foe (IFF) will mean a soldier can rapidly identify any target on the battlefield thanks to rapidly updated mission intelligence via the digital network.  With an integrated computer, video and radio on-board the soldier can preform more effective reconnaissance than ever before. Still images and real-time digital imaging can be relayed to the highest command levels. Based on such information the soldier can receive relevant instant orders. Battlefield performance is thus enhanced.

The entire system of this project is optimised for the lowest possible detection from enemy forces. Critical mission briefs and files, including updated maps and intelligence are sent via secure burst transmission digital battlefield communications network. Such information is rapidly available to the troops on the ground with much improved logistic coordination and satellite utilisation. Data is displayed on the soldiers Heads Up Display (HUD) were it is convenient it as possible. Target verification, mobility orders, abort mission, instant changes to standing orders and any other manner of order can be sent directly to the man on the ground.

1st Generation Land Warrior utalising grossly modified existing personal weapons systems

Digital communications arrays mean that any level of command can be contacted in an instant. The helmet also provides essential protection from harmful lasers. The uniform gives traditional ballistic protection, as well as Nuclear Biological Chemical (NBC) environment protection and provides an environmental conditioning system to keep the soldier comfortable as possible. The soldier can manipulate data and work his electronic equipment via a handset. Only a rather outdated 386 processor is required to run the Generation I system. Current models use more powerful technology that brings forth faster and more efficiency of data-processing for the battlefield.  In order to increase the survival of personnel on the ground a soldiers vital signs are monitored remotely so that medics can prioritise medical conditions and determine stresses, the effects of the environment and treat injuries in the best way possible.

The US Army Rangers are extensively testing the 21st CLW. Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom are also developing and working towards their own systems for the soldier beyond the year 2000.

Aircraft Ordnance

As air-power has developed so has the armaments that give these aircraft their firepower. Missile systems give a mixture of effects and ranges depending on the needs of the mission. From close range sidewinders to long range cruise missiles that can travel several thousand kilometres, and laser guided bombs (LGB) that can be targeted from the air or by ground forces. There are, as there always has been since their inception in warfare aircraft for different tactical and strategic roles. Examples include the A-10 Warthog Anti-tank warplane and the Stealth fighters and bombers. Missiles have many different capacities depending on the requirements of the operation, the type of environment and conditions expected and the suspected countermeasures that could be used by an enemy force. As such systems have been developed different threats have needed to be countered and improvements made over time, particularly as they have been used in real combat situations.

AIM-54 Phoenix

This missile is designed to attack other aircraft at very long ranges. It uses radar as a means of tracking the target as opposed to locking on via heat as many short-ranged missiles do. This particular missile has a range of 150 kilometres and carries a 60-kilogram warhead. US Navy F-14 Tomcats can be armed with up to six of these missiles. They are also the fastest available radar guided missile in the world.

GBU-15

This Laser Guided Bomb can be used on a variety of fighter, fighter bomber aircraft and tracks its target by either TV or Infrared (IR is used primarily at night or in bad weather). Due to the fact TV is used no electronic locking of the target is necessary as the pilot sees the image and can apply any corrections during flight via a joystick. The controlling aircraft has a data-link pod which sends this correction data to the bomb. The GBU-15 uses a 2000-pound bomb and has a range of 80 kilometres.

GBU-15 Laser Guided Bomb

GBU-27

This is an example of a Laser Guided Bomb (LGB) and is specifically designed to be used with the F-117 Stealth Fighter. It is supplied with a BLU-109 2000-pound bomb as armament, which holds 550 pounds of high explosive. A delayed action tail fuse allows the bomb to penetrate six feet of reinforced concrete before detonation. In association with the specialist F-117 aircraft the GBU-27 can hit a square metre target from an attitude of 25,000 feet.

Hellfire II

The Hellfire II is the latest in the Hellfire range of air to surface missiles, as seen on the Apache gunship helicopter. It uses a Semi-active Laser (SAL) for guidance to the target homing in on the laser reflection when the target is ‘painted’. The Hellfire II is extremely resistant to modern electro-optical countermeasures. For whatever reason that a target lock might be broken in flight the missile is able to reacquire the target. This is particularly of value when firing through low cloud cover. Reactive armour on tanks protects the tank by being destroyed by an incoming missile and leaving the hull armour untouched. A duel warhead on missiles such as the Hellfire II and AGM-114L are able to deal with this form of protection by eliminating the reactive armour then carrying on through the hull armour of the armoured vehicle. This missile is capable of destroying any known tank.

Hellfire missiles shown on the pylons of an Apache AH-64 Attack Helicopter

Anti-tank Warfare

Ever since the Tank first was encountered on the modern battlefield there have been methods of dealing with them. Wether it has been to destroy, or is often the case, render them inoperable there have been many. With modern technology the methods have become more varied and have had to compete hand in hand with more advanced armour, detection and counter devices. As with any other industry or technology the military has always been a place of competition. There has always been the concept of the better armour or detection versus the new improved weapon or counter-measure.

TOW

The TOW family of anti-tank missiles from the United States are the most effective in the world. The unfortunate point is that they are not man-portable. TOW stands for Tube Launched Optically Tracking Wire Guided which sort of goes some of the way in explaining how it works. The TOW system has been around since the Vietnam war and has had several upgrades since then including ITOW (Improved TOW) and TOW II. Each has an improved armour penetration capacity due to improved warhead and gradual improvement in effective range. The TOW II has improved digital guidance over previous models and better propulsion to improve range by almost a kilometre.

TOW II on Hummer light vehicle

The operator uses an optical sight to track the target as it moves. An infra-red sensor is used to track the missile and correction data is sent to the missile via the wire which is connected from the launcher to the missile. The operator must track the target until impact. This is the way most Anti-tank Guided Missile Weapons (ATGW) work.  There are two aspects to consider. One is the wire can be entangled in trees and such like and the crew of the launcher can be disturbed during firing which may lead them to miss their target. The Israelis have developed a laser targeting system that negates the need for a wire. This means that physical objects which could entangle the wire such as a trees are no longer a problem. This type of technology will no doubt pave the way for this form of warfare. The typical effective range of a TOW missile is around 3 kilometres. They can also be mounted on vehicles or helicopters.

BILL

The Swedish Bofors Infantry Light and Lethal anti-tank missile is different to most weapons of the ATGW type in that it works in the "top attack mode". Here it moves to the target about 75 cm above the operator’s line of sight. The downward pointing warhead fires when the missile is above the target, thus attacking the vulnerable top armour of the tank. Where necessary the warhead can be set to detonate directly to the front as is conventional. On identifying a target the operator fires the missile and keeps the cross-hair on the target. Common to many ATGW systems this method is called Semi-Automatic Command Line-of-Sight (SACLOS). A signal processing allows more than one BILL unit to be used in close proximity without being confused. That is, one launcher can only track its own missile. A Thermal Sight (TS) enables complete all-weather operation.  The BILL 2 has a two stage warhead to deal with advanced armour threats which will destroy most of the armour with the first warhead and carry on to destroy what remains and the rest of the tank internals with the second warhead.

A Swedish soldier operates a BILL missile system

Milan

Two men and a third carrying additional ammunition move the Milan (otherwise known as the Euro Missile) around the battlefield. This weapon is used extensively by European countries such as France and Great Britain. A MIRA thermal imaging sight allows for all weather night firing. Targets can be detected out to 3000 metres and engaged at about half that range. Extensive use was also made of this weapon by Coalition forces during the Gulf War.

Milan in use by Belgian Para Commandos

Anti-Aircraft Systems

There are two primarily different methods of dealing with the threat of aircraft regardless of their type and role. One is the use of cannon, essentially a rather large machinegun, and secondly the missile. Or though at first thought it may seem that the first method is rather primitive and the second is advanced, on the modern battlefield both utilise advanced tracking systems to deal with equally advanced targets. Also both methods have their advantages and disadvantages depending on their deployment and the kind of warfare that is being waged. Cannon systems are cheaper to run and train with. On the other hand missile systems are more effective at longer ranges and inflict more definite damage to the target on impact.

Vulcan

Unfortunately this is one area of warfare, where surprisingly the Americans fall behind. Their primary Self-propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun (SPAAG) is the M163 Vulcan which consists of a 20mm six barrel Minigun Cannon as armament. Mounted on a tank chassis for mobility the Vulcan is supplied with a US Navy Mk20 lead-computer sight which allows for computer assisted lead on a target. That is the sight can judge distance, direction and speed of the target to allow for a hit. EMTECH radar is used to track the range of a target. Electrical systems allow for automatic movement of the gun as it engages a target. As would be expected a manual system is present in cause this system fails. The major let down of this system is its lack of potential range, only around 1500 metres. The twin barrelled 40mm Bofors M247 Sgt York program to replace the Vulcan in the 1980’s was a complete failure.

Rapier

The Rapier is a mobile anti-aircraft missile system, which uses several different means of technology to ensure a hit against any low-flying air targets. Eight missiles are ready to use on the launcher that can rotate 360 degrees to engage a target at any side.  With its Blindfire tracking radar and Dagger surveillance radar the Rapier is able to engage modern supersonic jet aircraft at low attitudes. It is light enough to be air-transported, which is an essential part of any modern combat force. Blindfire is fully automatic and gives Rapier all-weather operation capacity.

To deal with modern countermeasures the system uses advanced frequency management. The system can process up to 75 possible threats a second. In the British military there are two air defence batteries of the Royal Artillery and three air defence squadrons in the Royal Air Force. In 1996 this weapon was also deployed to the Falklands Islands as part of the garrison there. The surveillance radar detects and acquires a target at over 15 kilometres away and with a missile command-linking system is able to engage multiple targets at one time. A Cossor Mark 12 Identify Friend or Foe (IFF) unit determines whether or not the target is valid by scanning it for a code thus preforming the critical job of threat assessment. The launcher then automatically aligns itself with the target. The missile is launched and is tracked by passive (can not be detected) infra-red and active radar.

Rapier platform

Reaction to the presence of a target is around five seconds and actual engagement of the target takes around 3 seconds. Static air defence Rapier Platform A helmet pointing system is available which the operator wears and replaces the active radar, which could be detected by the enemy. The optical tracker and launcher platform move as the operator moves his head. It is particularly useful when the unit is taken by surprise.  As the missile moves to its target in excess of Mach 2.5 correctional data is sent via a transmitter from the on-board computer to the missile. The operator continues to track the target via optical sight. A TV camera tracking system also tracks the missile by following its signature.  The missile itself can be stored without maintenance for up to 15 years. It uses a High Explosive Fragmentation warhead that is designed to detonate inside the target aircraft. The guidance section in behind the warhead contains the electronics pack, which receives correction data during flight.

FM-12 Stinger

The Stinger is a well regarded and publicly known air defence missile system which has been adopted by many nations, including several ‘knock off versions. As with any good military hardware on the modern battlefield the Stinger is adaptable being capable of being used on helicopters, mounted on armoured vehicles, by a single operator on the ground or as static defence. It is fully man portable meaning it can be used by infantry units and special forces teams without difficulty. This means its localised use by low level tactical units as well as Battalion, Regimental or Divisional assets. The system includes several parts; a launch tube containing the missile, which is discarded when the missile has been used, an IFF unit that is attached to the operators belt when an individual uses the weapon, and a grip stock handset which has the trigger mechanism.  The Stinger uses a passive infra-red tracking method. One upgrade of the system has been the reprogrammable microprocessor (RPM) allows the Stinger to engage and destroy more sophisticated air threats. It is interesting to note that the first active use (in real combat) of the Stinger was not by American personnel but by a member of the British Special Air Service (SAS) during the Falklands war.

Stinger man-portable Surface to Air Missile (SAM) System

SA-16

This is a recent Russian made man-portable Surface to Air Missile (SAM) system. The SA-16 (or "Gimlet" as it is code named by NATO forces) is an advancement on the earlier SA-7. This weapon is a much improved system over the SA-7 with a better seeker system using a two-colour method both IR and UV in order to decrease the effects of flares which are used by target aircraft to distract an incoming missile. The missile has a maximum altitude of 3500 metres.

The SA-16 missile system

2S6 Tunguska Self-propelled Anti-aircraft system

Previous systems in air defence tended towards either cannon or missile concepts. Here the Russians have shared the two ideas into the single unit. As such the Tunguska preforms the roles of both typical surface to air missile systems and the highly successful ZSU 23-4, the Soviet quad barrelled 23mm cannon SPAAG. This relatively new vehicle is armed with SA-19 missiles of which there are two in the launch ready stage and several more are carried. The missile is a two stage affair with a High Explosive (HE) war head using a proximity fused warhead, meaning that the missile explodes when it within a certain distance of the target.  A IFF unit which is compatible with all Russian aircraft and allows for rapid threat assessment is present. Target acquisition is fast at about 6 - 8 seconds and is automatic. The tracking radar has a range of up to 20 kilometres while the fire control radar has a range of around 15 kilometres. This gives the crew some time to react to the appearance of a target if they are not surprised at close range. The tracking radar can be retracted while not in use and also to reduce the target area of the vehicle not to mention the radar itself. Optical tracking is also available when severe weather is a factor, or the enemy is using effective Electronic Counter Measures (ECM). This system is roof-mounted. Part of the most modern versions of this vehicle is also Electronic Counter Counter Measures which act against target ECM to allow for a decent target acquisition and engagement by electronic surveillance means. Full NBC protection is provided as well as an internal intercom which allows the crew to talk with each other effectively over the noise of operation.

A twin 30mm cannon system uses the ballistic approach and the high rate of automatic fire for close range interception is provided at 5000 rpm out to a maximum range of 5000 metres. True effective range is deemed to be about half that. As with all these types of systems they can be fired on the move with which computer technology assists but it is far more effective to fire from the stability of a static position. The Tunguska has hydro-pneumatic suspension that can be locked out to further stabilise the vehicle for firing. A similar conceptual system is being trialed by the American military, which consists of a 25mm Gatling gun cannon, and a Stinger missile launching rack. This unit is mounted on the Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle chassis and is called Blazer.

Multiple Launch Rocket Systems

The Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) is not a new concept (dating back to World War Two) but for the thought of modern warfare perhaps it is only recently been perfected. As opposed to conventional artillery which is difficult to move unless self-propelled, and use shells the MLRS systems are highly mobile mounted on vehicles armed with racks of rockets. The Gulf war saw devastating application of these mobile rocket artillery units when deployed against Iraqi positions. The Iraqis who survived such attacks referred to the effects of these attacks as "Steel Rain".

MLRS

This American system is used primarily by its native country and by the British in the hands of the Royal Artillery. Other countries also use the MLRS such as Germany who produce the AT2 Anti-tank submunition for the system, which is currently used by Germany and British forces. This rocket spreads 336 anti-tank mines over a 1000 x 400-metre area. The individual mine arms after twenty seconds of being laid and can also be set to self-destruct after a given period to render them harmless to friendly forces. The standard 227mm M77 rocket contains 644 bomblets, which can penetrate 100mm of armour (enough to destroy most armoured vehicles). Standard M77 rockets have a range of 30 kilometres while a newer Extended Range (ER) rocket brings that range out to a 45 kilometres. A practice round with less range allows crews to train at less expense and without lethal concern. MLRS firing a standard M26 warhead The US is developing a new warhead called SADARM (Sense and Destroy Armour) which contains 6 anti-tank missiles which will seek out a single target each, which is designed to penetrate the top armour of the tank, the top armour being much weaker. An over-pressure system protects the cabin from both NBC dangers and the fumes produced by the launcher when it is fired. Light-weight aluminium armour will only protect the crew from small arms and shell splinters but in any case the unit will not be hanging around for long to prevent enemy fire from coming in on their position after firing their rockets which generate a great deal of smoke. As such it is usual practice to fire all 12 rockets at once using the ‘shoot and scoot’ policy rather than individually firings. This also has the added advantage of having a greater area effect on the target.

227mm MLRS firing

AN/TPQ Series Radar

These radar systems are designed to locate both friendly and hostile artillery. They are in use with the American military in association with MLRS batteries. The US Marines use the AN/TPQ-36 which as a range of around thirty kilometres. It establishes the location of enemy positions by tracking incoming fire. This is so accurate as to be able to detect a single .50 calibre round from a heavy machinegun. Many targets can be tracked at one instant. The MLRS launcher can then lock on to the target and rapidly eliminate it. The AN/TPQ-37 in use by the US Army has a range twice that of the Marine radar. As such Army units are often deployed with the Marines in actual combat situations. Target data can of course be forwarded to allied forces in the field rapidly. The AN/TPQ-36

The results of effective radar and an MLRS during the Gulf War

An artillery round called DPICM (Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munition) allows an artillery piece to have a similar effect as the MLRS system, though not over as large an area. Each shell contains eight "tuna cans" (named this because of their shape) which are like thick disks. A small charge fires these disks from the shell when it is over the target. Each of these disks contains a shaped charge capable of destroying armoured vehicles. Attached to each disk is a length of ribbon attached to a swivel with an offset, which means the disk charge will be directed at the ground target the right way up. MLRS have a greater area effect and you need many more artillery guns to get the same effect but a MLRS is but a single target to eliminate.

TPQ-37 Radar

Smerch

This MLRS has been in service with the Russian military since 1988 and uses a launcher firing a total of twelve 300mm rockets either independently or in a single salvo. Fire control is preformed by a Vivari Fire Control System which is housed in a separate command vehicle. This system can operate either manually or automatically. This single system controls six Smerch vehicles of a typical battery unit. One or two E-175 computers calculate ballistic and target data for each mobile launcher. Both radio and satellite communications systems are present for universal communication to higher and lower level commands. Rumour has it that a miniature aerial vehicle, the R-90 has been developed which can be fired from a Smerch rocket. It could preform battlefield intelligence gathering by way of a stabilised camera. Using GPS and having the same range (70 km) as the standard 300mm rocket the unit commander can gain valuable information for battlefield operations for up to 30 minutes.

Russian Smerch 300mm MLRS

Remote Piloted Vehicles

Remotely piloted vehicles (RPV), also used with artillery units, or drones are basically miniature unmanned aircraft, are used to gather target data which is sent back to the unit via real-time signal to provide necessary information for fire missions. Monitors allow the operators to see the target, which can be many kilometres away and ensure that the target is a) still there and b) legitimate. Even without this system the on-board Improved Fire Control System (IFCS) allows target data to be recorded and, when the vehicle moves this data is automatically updated to cater for that movement. The MLRS launcher can move to a new location after being reloaded at predetermined position with Dismounted Ramp Offload and Pickup System (DROPS) trucks that have extra rockets.

Phoenix RPV

Battlefield Communication

With all the chaos and goings on and the continuous logistical difficulties facing any modern military force there has become an even greater need for solid, secure communications networks for many different applications. The days of ‘scrambling’ radio messages are gone and it has been replaced by burst transmission which separates the message out and rapidly sends the elements to be reassembled at the receiver end. A different frequency is used to send and to receive making it even more difficult to detect or to Direction Find (DF) which enables an enemy to determine the location of the device being used. It is also important to be able to intercept and ‘jam’ enemy communications. Spot jamming involves jamming a particular frequency without interfering with any other frequency. In today’s age it is difficult to do this as there are frequency-hopping devices which automatically jump from one frequency to another. In such a case one needs to use a wide band-jamming device.

Gunner with PRC-319 man portable radio capable of burst transmission

As there is so many roles in the military there are many communications packages to satisfy these needs. At the low end there are man-portable units such as Clansman which only weight 2kg and have long range out to 50km suitable for Special Forces operations and long range reconnaissance.

Small units in traditional tactical roles also use other similar less advanced radios. A rifle section would use such a radio. A range of around two kilometres is not a handicap. An example of this type of communications equipment is the American PRC-68A. High-end communications sets need to be able to provide telegraphic, data transmission and faxing capacities. Scimitar is a system which provides Electronic Counter Measures and there are also different variants for different applications including pocket sized VHF radio and a vehicle / man-pack unit.

Royal Signals include ground stations and man-pack systems for troops in remote places to link to the Satellite Communications (SATCOM) using the Skynet 4D built by Matra Marconi Space.

Modern communications systems allow for all forms of data transmission and voice relay in the most remote of places.

Electronic Warfare

At the core of any modern battlefield whether it be a covert Special Forces operation, action against terrorists, intelligence gathering and or any other form of warfare you need not look far to see the use of electronics. Bore scopes are used to determine what is on the other side of a room, Electronic countermeasures pods are used by aircraft to hinder enemy detection methods. Identify Friend or Foe is used to determine legitimate targets. Due to the rather complex technical natural of such hardware involved it is only the intention to go into give general information to give the reader an idea of what is out there.

Identify Friend or Foe

There has always been the risk of your forces being hit with your own weapons and this has become more and more a risk as technology has advanced. Even though this advancement has made missiles and artillery and the like more accurate it has also lead to more ordnance being thrown about. All in all if you don’t know were your people are there is greater and greater risks involved. No one combatant can know were every single friendly unit is at any one time. This is particularly true of covert operations. Technology has allowed us to develop systems which can, by various means know wether or not a unit is in-fact an enemy and thus a possible target or a friend or otherwise neutral non-combatant. A Identify Friend or Foe unit is part a more complex array of technology such as a missile launcher, modern fighter plane or other such instrument of war. It is programmed with countless numbers of allied and potential enemy hardware. Friendly units have transponder codes that can be detected by the given IFF device. A signal is sent back to the unit (which maybe not much larger than a cigarette box) to say that the unit is friendly and should not be engaged. Unfortunately this does not always work well where several nations are involved in a particular conflict.

Electronic Countermeasures

Electronic Countermeasures is the name given to devices, usually rather large pods attached to the wings of aircraft, which enable for improved evasion of enemy missile systems. They can be activated either automatically when a threat is detected by computer or manually by the pilot or other crewmember. The computer control is digital and on board the pod itself. The difficulty with such defensive systems is that they are not universal. Because of the different threats out there and variation between warfare scenarios the ECM pod must be programmed on the ground before it is deployed. Thus the computer will know what sort of threats it needs to counter in either training or the operational environment. The jamming techniques that are required to be used are provided on disk and can be programmed while the pod is actually on the aircraft in a very short space of time.

ALQ-131 Advanced ECM Pod provides protection against radar threats. This system is used by A-10 Warthog ground attack aircraft, F-111 and F-16

Main Battle Tanks

Tanks have always been the main aggressor on the modern battlefield with regards to armoured vehicles. As powerful as they seem they are, even in these times vulnerable to missile systems, mines and other assorted hazards built either directly or indirectly for their demise. Tanks are big targets and the crew must ensure that terrain is used to best advantage ensuring the least exposure to enemy fire. All the same modern technology has made this machine a fast, agile and devastating component to any battle that it enters. Armour is tougher and the crew has sights to enable day and night operation and firing of weapons.

Digital Fire Control Computers enable a Main Battle Tank such as the M1 Abrams to fire its 120mm Main gun on the move. The same computers enable several targets to be engaged and hit within seconds.

An M1 Abrams Main Battle Tank armed with a 120mm Main Gun and numerous advanced features to survive on the modern battlefield

Diagram showing the use of a Fire Control System by Tank crewman Fire Control Systems

The modern battlefield requires accuracy and coordination of fire from the infantryman at the front line to artillery giving fire support and mobile units such as the Multi-Launch Rocket System (MLRS) as used extensively in the Gulf War. This system alone can engage targets out to 32 kilometres with a flight time of 114 seconds.

All modern tanks feature complex Fire Control Systems (FCS) which allow for fast and accurate target acquisition and engagement. Firing of a 120mm smoothbore Main Gun; once the Tank Commander selects a target many micro-processes take place to ensure a hit. Many elements have to be considered in order for the round to hit. Unlike some years ago where a simple telescope akin to the tanks gun is used and several rounds may be required to be fired before a hit is made, a first round hit is now possible. If you want to survive it is also often vital on the modern battlefield. A Muzzle Bore Sight (MBS) is laid on the target by the Gunner. This simulates the Main Gun being pointed directly at the target in question. An Aiming Ellipse is placed on the target also. At this time the Laser Rangefinder sends out a laser to determine precise range to the target and the on-board computer calculates the correct ballistic trajectory depending on the round being used.  Wind, range, movement of both the tank and the target, temperature, barrel wear and turret movement are all considered by the computer and adjustments are made accordingly for the best possible result. This process moves the aiming ellipse to physically show the adjustments being done. The Gunner now moves the aiming ellipse back onto the target, the Muzzle Bore Sight thus moves to the correct location, and the Gunner fires the Main Gun. This process takes a matter of seconds.

Training Devices

The soldier today regardless of what role they play in combat need to know that, when the day comes they can effectively and confidently carry out their duties. This means their comrades under arms are as much likely to survive as they are. Technology has allowed for the development of many systems to test and train the soldier in the many facets of warfare. The infantryman who wants to know for sure if his marksmanship is up to scratch, and to demonstrate to his target wether or not he was making use of effective cover or not. The Anti-tank platoon that needs to know if they can eliminate the enemy armoured vehicle need not destroy a tank and waste valuable live ammunition to establish if their skills make the grade. A war-fighter needs to be confident that when they go to do the job for real they can preform. Or though the technology to enable realistic training has been expensive it has also saved a great deal of money. Using the Anti-tank unit as an example, it is so expensive that each operator of a Milan launcher is only able to fire one live round per year. Using a system such as MILES can be immediately seen to save the taxpayer a great deal of money.

MILES

MILES stands for Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System. All weapons on the battlefield can be part of an exercise using this system. This includes armoured vehicles, mine systems, artillery, aircraft, mortars and so forth. Eye safe lasers have enabled this technology to be utilised effectively without interfering with the users normal routines. A weapon such as a rifle is fitted with a laser generator that is activated by the firing of a blank round. Sensors are fitted to every participant, vehicle or individual. A laser beam is fired in accordance to a weapons operational capacity and if this beam contacts a given sensor then the MILES system can indicate the nature of the hit. As in real warfare, a hit does not also mean a ‘kill’. For example vehicles are fitted with devices which will send out smoke when damages and render the vehicle inoperable if ‘destroyed. The individual infantryman gets a disturbing noise go off in their helmet when they are effectively ‘killed’. They need to remove a key from the laser generator, taking them out of the battle exercise. This stops the noise.

SAWES

The British system, Small Arms Weapon Effect Simulator (SAWES) required that the soldier lie on their back to stop the noise. A similar system is used for armoured vehicles. Logistics is considered in such exercises as ‘wounded’ soldiers need to move on to medical posts. Medics need to evacuate wounded personnel and the old story of "I shot you, you’re dead’ arguments are eliminated by this very effective technology. Even vehicles can be treated in this way, in that a hit will take them out of the battle, or they lose mobility. Then they are brought back into the action once an engineer unit has repaired them. The laser will simulate cover according to the given weapon the generator is attached to, so that a potential target knows wether or not they are using terrain properly or not.  Effectiveness of that hit is also gauged by the associated computer and will decide the results and impact of the ‘hit’. At the end of an exercise a scanner can indicate what sort of damage is done and therefore the effectiveness of the combatants.

Anti-tank crew operates a Milan during Exercises.

Visional Aids

Something that the past has not so well afforded us is the ability to counter the effects of night and even the effects of environmental conditions on the vision of the fighter. With the aid of night vision in all roles of warfare the combatant, a pilot, a soldier, a tank crewman, can all counter the threat of darkness. This comes in so many ways from parachute flares, illumination ammunition, night vision goggles and thermal scopes amongst others. Technology must be able to work within the bounds of the human operator. Sometimes technology can also have an adverse effect, particularly in the area of vision aids. On a night exercise or more crucially, a night mission a combatant who is wearing night vision goggles or is subjected to illumination rounds will lose their natural night vision. This can take half an hour to get back again. This is why some night vision goggles feature only one lens. This way one eye is enhanced while the other still maintains natures way of seeing in the dark.

American soldier equipped with Night Vision Goggles

Passive Night Vision Goggles (PNG) and similar binocular type aids work by amplifying available light such as starlight or moonlight. What you see is a green electronic image on a phosphor screen rather than a modified image of what you are looking at (like it would be by say, looking through a telescopic scope). The image is green because the human eye can identify more shades of green than any other colour. The problem with such visionary aids is that, even though they are passive and can not be detected they are not best operated in bad weather and in fog or the presence of smoke. Here thermal based devices come into their own. These devices sense objects, vehicles and personnel by the heat that they produce. Therefore they are able to ‘penetrate’ cover and structures which conventional visionary based devices can not do. Every person and every recently run vehicle on the battlefield produces a certain amount of heat that can be detected by such devices.

AN/PVS-4

Weighting just under 2 kilograms, the AN/PVS-4 Individual Weapon Night Sight provides passive night vision for the operators of small arms and support weapons such as the M60 General Purpose Machinegun. It uses natural starlight or moonlight. It provides magnification of x3.6 and can be used to detect targets out to around 500 metres. A 2.7-volt mercury battery powers the unit for about a 24-hour period of continuous use. An automatic brightness control caters for any sudden flashes of light such as from rifle muzzle flash.

AN/PVS-4 Individual Weapon Night Sight

Conclusion

Even with all this technology there is always the dangers of prototyping and testing, becoming reliant on these marvels and the thought that there is always a means to deal out to this technology no matter how marvellous it seems to be. Through complexity comes risk of breakdown and there must be no doubt, particularly in the mind of the user, that the machinery will continue to operate in the harsh environments that the battlefield presents us. Regardless of technology the modern combatant must still know the ancient methods of his or her craft such as navigation when GPS fails. They will still walk through the same old mud. And as is often the case, when the engineers are not close by, one still needs to resort to the trusty entrenching tool to get that fire pit dug. Methods are still taught to troops that enable them to cope without technology when it is in short supply. Examples of such tactics are the use of machineguns used in unison to take down low flying aircraft.

Royal Marines Commandos, demonstrating, even with technology the heavy load must still be carried.

Glossary of Terms

21st CLW - 21st Century Land Warrior ACR - Advanced Combat Rifle ATGW - Anti-tank Guided (Missile) Weapon ECM - Electronic Counter Measures IFF - Identify Friend or Foe LGB - Laser Guided Bomb NBC - Nuclear Biological Chemical MBT - Main Battle Tank MLRS - Multiple Launch Rocket System OICW - Objective Individual Combat Weapon PNG - Passive Night Vision Goggles SAM - Surface to Air Missile SPAAG - Self-propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun SPH - Self-propelled Howitzer TOW - Tube Launched Optically Tracking Wire Guided

Bibliography

War Machine Issue 1 published by Orbis Publishing Ltd Raids magazine January 1995 published by Collectors Press Limited

Raids magazine January 1996 published by Collectors Press Limited

The Directory of the Worlds Weapons published by The Book Company International

Permission for use of the photograph reproduction of the destroyed SPH given by the owner "Bullethead", former USMC.

Web sites visited during the course of research;

http://cust2.iamerica.net/blade/

http://www.defensedaily.com

http://www.army-technology.com

http://people.delphi.com/jtweller/gulfwar.htm

Some pictures have been used from these sites for research and educational purposes only without permission. This is not intended to challenge the respective ownership and copyright of this material.

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